class 9 ICSE Solutions

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography – Earth’s Structure

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ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography – Earth’s Structure

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

Exercises

I. Short Answer Questions

Question 1.
Name the sources of information about forces operating inside the earth.
Answer:
Information about forces operating inside the earth is taken by the study of seismic waves, materials thrown up by volcanoes and the evidence from the theories of the origin of the earth.

Question 2.
In which part of the earth is NIFE found ? What it is composed of ?
Answer:
NIFE is found in the inner core of die earth. NIFE is composed of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe), being heavy metals and having high density, these are found deep inside the earth.

Question 3.
What are the consequences of the pressure and temperature in the interior of the earth ?
Answer:
Due to the extreme temperature of 2200° C, every matter is in liquid and gaseous state in the interior core, the temperature in the mantle ranges from 870° C to 2200° C, so things are in semi – liquid to liquid state, the crust, a layer of 60 km, breadth, is made of solid rocks with a density of 2 – 3, g/Cm3. The density goes on increasing to 3-4g/Cm3 in the mantle and 10-13 g/Cm3 in the core.

Question 4.
What is the lithosphere ?
Answer:
The crust is called Lithosphere made of solid rocks with a thickness of 60 km. below high mountains and 6-12 km below the oceans.

Question 5.
Name the three layers of the earth’s interior.
Answer:
The three layers of earth’s interior are:

  1. Core
  2. Mantle
  3. Crust

Question 6.
State two chief characteristics of the earth’s crust.
Answer:
The crust is made of solid rocks and divided into oceans and continents.

Question 7.
Describe the mantle. State its two chief characteristics.
Answer:
Mantle lies between 60 – 2900 km. depth. It is divided into two parts namely upper mantle and lower mantle, which are in the form of solid rocks and semi-molten rocks respectively.

Question 8.
Where is asthenosphere found ? In which form does it exist ?
Answer:
At the depth of 100 – 250 km. The mantle is partially molten and known as asthenosphere, with a temperature of 1100°C.

Question 9.
Write one difference between Moho Discontinuity and Gutenberg Discontinuity.
Answer:
Moho Discontinuity is the boundary between crust and mantle and Gutenberg Discontinuity is the boundary between mantle and core.

Question 10.
Why is the earth’s interior in most part found in a solid state despite great heat and pressure ?
Answer:
The solid state of the inner core is due to high density and pressure which have compressed molten rock material and keep this layer firm and solid in some parts due to high pressure inspite of the temperature of 5000°C.

Question 11.
Name two types of earth movements.
Answer:
Two types of movements are due to isostasy and tectonic plates. Isostasy is the process of natural balance between different landforms and the sliding movement of the tectonic plates of the earth’s crust.

Question 12.
What is Geology ?
Answer:
Geology is the science dealing with the origin and types of rocks found in the interior of the earth.

II. Give reasons for each of the following

Question 1.
The study of meteorites helps scientists to know about the interior of the earth.
Answer:
At the time of the origin of the earth every planet and meteorites were floating in the space and the materials of the earth were same as that of the meteorites. So, the scientists can calculate the composition of rocks ofthe earth by studying the materials found in the meteorites.

Question 2.
Temperature starts rising gradually towards the interior of the earth.
Answer:
Due to enhancing density and pressure the temperature goes on increasing gradually towards inside of the interior of the earth.

Question 3.
The asthenosphere is in a semi-molten state.
Answer:
At the depth of 100 – 250 km the mantle is partially molten and known as asthenosphere due to the temperature around 1100°C along with greater pressure and density.

Question 4.
The inner core is in a solid state.
Answer:
The high pressure in the interior core keeps this layer firm and solid in some parts, in spite of the temperature as high as 5000°C.

Question 5.
The continents are placed above the oceans.
Answer:
The density of continents is lesser than the layer supporting the ocean beds, so the continents came floating upwards at the time of the formation and solidification of the earth, as the lighter things come upwards floating over the heavier things i. e. Sial is lighter than Sima

III. Long Answer Questions

Question 1.
Look at the figure on the side and answer the questions:

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 1

(a) Label the parts : (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5).
(b) Name the state (solid, liquid or gas) in which each part exists.

Answer:
(a)

  1. Atmosphere
  2. Lithosphere
  3. Mantle
  4. Core
  5. Hydrosphere.

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 2

(b)

  1. Atmosphere — Gas
  2. Lithosphere — Solid
  3. Mantle — Semi-solid
  4. Core — Molten state or liquid
  5. Hydrosphere — Liquid (water)

(c) What part is suitable for human habitation? Why? Ans. Outer part of the earth is suitable for human habitation due to favourable conditions for survival, i.e. atmosphere for air, Lithosphere for settlement due to ideal temperature and land, hydrosphere for hydrological cycle for providing rainfall and fresh water bodies on the earth and oceans for navigation and trade routes etc.

Question 2.
Describe the layers of the interior of the earth and their chemical composition.
Answer:
The interior of the earth is divided into three major parts i.e. crust, mantle and core. The crust consists of majority of, silica and aluminium and is called ‘SIAL’, mantle is called SIMA due to the majority of silica and magnesium and is called SIMA, which makes the bed of oceans and the core is called NIFE with excess of Nickel and Iron (Ni + Fe).

Question 3.
There are two transitional zones between the two consecutive layers of the interior of the earth. Name them and state their chief characteristics.
Answer:
The transitional zone between crust and mantle is Moho Discontinuity which is the dividing zone between solid and semi-solid state of rocks due to the increasing temperature as the depth increases. The boundary between mantle and core is known as Gutenberg Discontinuity, below this zone both density and temperature going on increasing. The density is more than 13 and temperature is more than 2200°C.

Question 4.
Explain the layers of the interior of the earth with reference to the following :

(a) Depth,
(b) Temperature
(c) Density.

Answer:
Crust :

(a) Depth 35-50 km below continents and 6-12 km. below the oceans.
(b) Temperature — Less than 870°C
(c) Density — 2.7 g/Cm3 – 5.5 g/Cm3.

Mantle :

(a) Depth — 50 – 2900 km.
(b) Temperature — 1500° C – 2200°C
(c) Density — 3 g/Cm3 – 4.5 g/Cm3

Core :

(a) Depth — 2900 km – 3500 km
(b) Temperature — 2200°C – 5000°C
(c) Density — 10.0 g/Cm3 – 13.6 g/Cm3.

Question 5.
Study the figure on the side and answer the questions:

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 3

(a) What is known as Sial ? How deep is the area marked by Sial ?
(b) What role does Sima play ?
(c) Why is the expression ‘Nife’ so called ?
(d) Which layer is responsible for earth’s magnetic field ? Why?
(e) What happens to the continents if there is an earthquake?

Answer:

(a) Sial is the upper layer or crust of the earth. The name Sial is based on the excess of Silica and Aluminium. The depth of Sial is 60 km.
(b) Sima is the second layer of earth which gives support to the ocean beds. There is the excess of Silica and Magnesium.
(c) ‘Nife’ means Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe) due to the majority of Nickel and Iron in the core,
(d) Core of earth is responsible for earth’s magnetic field because it is composed of iron and nickel which is responsible for earth’s magnetism. Magnetic field is oriented towards North and South Poles.
(e) Several drastic changes may occur during the earthquake. It depends on the intensity of the earthquake. If intensity is 8 or more buildings may break up, casualties and major changes on the landforms as broad breaking gaps, origin or disappearing of several small islands.

Practice Questions (Solved)

Question 1.
Which are the two most abundant chemical elements in the Earth’s crust ?
Answer:
Oxygen and Silicon.

Question 2.
Why does the Sun not rise at the same time everywhere in the world ?
Answer:
If the Earth were flat, the whole world would have the sunrise and sunset at the same time. As the Earth is spherical and rotates from West to East, places in the East see the Sun earlier than the places in the West.

Question 3.
“The whole of the approaching ship is not visible at one time.” Why ?
Answer:
The Earth has a spherical snape. Along its curved surface, the appearance of a ship is gradual. We see first the smoke, then the mast and then the hull. If the Earth were flat, the entire ship would be seen all at once.

Question 4.
“Even when the Earth is spherical, it appears to be flat.” Discuss.
Answer:
The actual shape of the Earth is spherical. The curvature of the Earth is small as compared to its big size. For a small area upto 100 sq. miles, this curvature is negligible. Therefore, it appears flat.

Question 5.
Why is the Earth slightly flattened at the poles ?
Answer:
The Earth is not a perfect sphere. It is slightly flattened at both the poles. It is due to the centripetal force produced by the rotation of the Earth.

Question 6.
Explain briefly the structure of the earth.
OR
Discuss the structure of the earth giving details about each of its layers and arguments in support of your contention.
Answer:
The structure of the earth means the interior of the earth.
The entire earth is composed of three zones

  1. Lithosphere
  2. Mesosphere and
  3. Barysphere.

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 4

(i) The Crust or Lithosphere It is the outermost layer. Its thickness varies from 8 to 60 kms. It is solid and is formed largely of igneous rocks. The crust consists of two layers.

  1. a lower, continuous layer of basaltic (mafic) rocks and
  2. and upper layer of granitic (felsic) rock, which constitutes bulk of continents. It is absent in ocean basins. These parts of the crust forming the continents are much thicker than the crust under the oceans. Its main universal constituents are Silica and Aluminium. It is collectively known as ‘SIAL’. It has an average density of 2.7. The lower layer has an average density of 3.0. It main mineral constituents are Silica (SI) and Magnesium (MA) and is therefore called ‘SIMA’. Since the SIAL is lighter than the SIMA, the continents can be said to be floating on the layer of denser SIMA.

(ii) Mantle or The Mesosphere Beneath the crust or Lithosphere lies the Mantle or Mesosphere. Its thickness is 2840 km. Its density is 3.1 to 5.0. It depth is 2900 km. It is again divided into two sub layers.

  1. the internal Silicate layer (SIMA). Its thickness is 1140 km and density varies from 3.1 to 4.75 and
  2. Mixed layer of metals and silicates. Its thickness is 1700 kms. and density is 4.75 – 5.0.

(iii) Core or the Barysphere It is the central nucleus. It is made up of dense rock materials – Nickel and Iron. It is also called the layer ‘NIFE’. Its thickness is 3471 km (radius of core). It is again divided into two sub-layer

  1. The outer core is liquid or plastic in nature and
  2. Inner core (Barysphere) which is solid and rigid because of tremendous overlying pressure. The density of core is 5.1 to 13.

Question 7.
Where is Mantle located in the Earth ?
Answer:
The Mantle or Mesosphere is located between 2850 – 2900 km beneath the earth crust.

Question 8.
Describe any three experiments to prove the Spherical Shape of the Earth.
Answer:

  1. If you observe a ship approaching sea coast, the top of the mast is seen first and the hull, lower parts are seen gradually. Due to the curvature of the Earth, the whole ship is not seen at one time.
    ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 5
  2. Fix three poles of equal length at equal distance on the ground. These do not give a horizontal level. The top of the middle pole looks higher than the other two poles due to the curvature pf the Earth. This experiment was done by Mr A.R. Wallace on Bedford canal.
    ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 6
  3. If you look around at the Earth’s horizon (where Earth and sky appear to meet), it will everywhere and always appear circular. It widens with increasing altitude due to Spherical Earth.
    ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Geography Chapter 4 Earth’s Structure 7

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – Early Vedic Civilization

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ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – Early Vedic Civilization

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Name any two early Aryan settlements.
Answer:
The early Aryans settled in the Sapta-Sindhu region which comprised the five rivers of Punjab namely—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and the river Indus (Sindhuj and the river Sarasvati.

Question 2.
Name the first of the Vedas. Or Which is the oldest Vedic literature.
Answer:
The Rig Veda is the oldest Vedic literature.

Question 3.
What does the Rijj Veda contain ?
Answer:
It contains hymns in praise of different Gods and Goddesses like – Indra, varuna and Agni.

Question 4.
Mention any of the Vedic hymns that enables us reconstruct the Early Vedic Civilization.
Answer:
Agni. Agni was the personification of the ‘sacrificial fire.’ Sacrifices or yajnas occupied a prominent place in the early Vedic religion. Agni was thought of a messenger or a bearer of offerings (of milk, grain, ghee, etc.) from men to Gods.

Question 5.
How can you say that the Rig Vedic Age was the Non ­Iron using phase of Vedic history ?
Answer:
The copper and the bronze were available in abundance, while the use of iron was not known to the Rig Vedic Age.

Question 6.
Name any two of the four Varnas.
Answer:
The Brahmins and the Kshtriyas.

Question 7.
What w’as the position of women in the Rig Vedic age ?
Answer:
Women were treated as being equal with men. They took part in all religious rites. Women were given education. Girls had freedom in the choice of husbands. Monogamy any polygamy both were popular. Child-marriage the sati system and purdah did not exist among the Aryans. The women attended all the social functions and gatherings. People prayed for the birth of sons in particular, but there are no clues of prayers for the birth of a daughter.

Question 8.
What were the two main occupations of the Rig Vedic Aryans?
Answer:
Domestication of the animals and agriculture.

Question 9.
What form of worship did the Aryans follow during the early Vedic period?
Answer:
The early Vedic period comprised worshiping of  several gods. The Aryans used to worship Gods of the Sky or Heaven, Gods of the Atmosphere Gods of the Earth, Sacrifices or the Yajnas.

Question 10.
Name the two political institutions which exercised check on the powers of the King in the Rig Vedic period.
Answer:
The Samiti and the Sabha.

Question 11.
Mention the important features of the religion of the early Vedic period.
Answer:
The religion of the early Vedic period was very simple. The people worshiped various forces of nature as manifestations of the Supreme God. Thus, they worshiped a number of Nature Gods. The Aryans did not build any temples of worshiped idols. They used to chant hymns in the open air. Sacrifices or the Yajnas occupied a prominent place in the early Vedic period.

Question 12.
State the importance of Sacrifices in the early Vedic ritual.
Answer:
The Aryans propitiated their Gods by performing sacrifices. The common items of offerings for the sacrifice included ghee, milk, grain, flesh and soma juice. Every householder performed the sacrifice by kindling the sacred fire and reciting hymns. All the members of the family participated in these ceremonies.

Question 13.
Mention the important changes that took place in their religion of the later Vedic period.
Answer:
In the later Vedic period, Vajpeya sacrifice was performed by a new king at the time of his coronation. The Rajasuya sacrifice was performed to appease Gods in order to ensure the material well-being of the kingdom. The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed for a powerful king to proclaim that he was the ‘King of Kings’.

Sturctue Questions.
Question 1.
Discuss the sources to reconstruct the Early Vedic (Rig Vedic) Past with reference to the following:
(a) Indra, the most favorite God of the Aryans
(b) Agni, the personification of Sacrificial fire.
(c) References to the Cow in the Rig Vedic hymns
Answer:
(a)
In the Rig Veda, Indra is the king of the gods and ruler of the heavens. Indra is the God of thunder and rain and a great warrior, a symbol of courage and strength. He leads the Deva (the gods who form and maintain Heaven) and the elements, such as Agni (Fire), Varuna (Water) and Surya (Sun). He thus fights in a timeless battle between good and evil. As the God of war, he is also regarded as one of the guardians of the directions, representing the East. As the favorite national god of the Vedic Indians, Indra has about 250 hymns dedicated to him in the Rigveda, more than those devoted to any other god and almost one fourth of the total number of hymns of the Rigveda.
(b)
Agni, the Vedic god of fire who presides over the earth, has made transition into the Hindu pantheon of gods, without losing his importance. With Vayu and Indra, who presided over the air and sky, he is one of the supreme gods in Rig Veda. The link between heaven and earth, he is associated with Vedic sacrifice, taking offerings to the other world in the fire. Agni is a deva, second only to Indra in the power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology. Agni stands for knowledge for it is seen by the learned people, covering all things that move and do not move and because it is summers the Devatas endowed with knowledge. The light Agni units is the light of knowledge, therefore it is known as illuminator of knowledge who lights up the path leading to truth.
(c)
Cow has been a symbol of wealth since ancient Vedic times. In the Rig Veda, the cows figure frequently as symbols to  wealth, and also in comparison with river goddesses. The Vedic god Indra is often compared to a bull. River are often linked to cows in the Rigveda.

Question 2.
Describe the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans with reference to the following:
(a) The Family Structure
(b) Position of Women
(c) Varna System
Answer:
With reference to the given heads the social life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is described below:
(a)
The Family Structure: The basic unit of the social structure was the ‘family’. The joint family system was prevalent. Houses in this age, were built of wood or reed. The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal in which Grihyapati(master of the house) dominated in family and social life.
(b)
Position of Women: Women were given equal status to that of men in society. They were permitted to participate in all the religious rites. Gaining of education had not been restricted to them. There w’ere women scholars who composed hymns and were well-versed in the sacred scriptures. Girls could seek husbands of their own choice. Monogamy was in custom, but polygamy w’as also practiced by many. Child-marriage, the Sati system and Purdah did not exist among the Aryans, The w’omen attended all social functions and gatherings. The general tendency of people w’as to have male births rather than the females. They used to perform prayers seeking the birth of the male-child. But, in case of females, people had a repulsive attitude they did not like to have female-baby.
(c)
Varna System: One hymn in the last book of the Rig Veda refers to four orders of society — the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaisyas and the The people w’ho explained the Vedic texts and performed the religious ceremonies were called the Brahmins. Those w’ho belonged to the ruling class, were the Kshatriyas. The common people, w’ho were engaged in agriculture, trade and industry were the Vaisyas. The Shudras were the menial workers who did not have much to ow’n. Scholars are of the opinion that the term ‘Varna’ in the Rig Veda, refers to the racial difference between the Aryans and non-Aryans. It is in this context that therferms Ary a Varna and Dasa Varna came into use. There was no ban on the taking of food cooked by Shudras and no restrictions on intermarriages or change of occupation.

Question 3.
With reference to the following explain the main features of the Rig Vedic Economy:
(a) Agriculture
(b) Domestication of Animals
(c) Trade Transactions, Crafts and Transportation
Answer:
With reference to the given headings, the economic life of the Rig Vedic Aryans is explained as follows:
(a) Agriculture: The Rig Vedic Aryans were mainly scattered in villages. They frequently prayed for plentiful rain and bountiful harvest, large herds of cattle and good health. It shows that agriculture was an important occupation of the village folk. However, the only grain referred to in the Rig Veda is Yava which could mean grain in general or barley in particular.

(b) Domestication of Animals: The Rig Vedic Aryans had mainly a pastoral economy. Cattle formed an important item of dona (gifts) made to the priests. The word Gomat was used to signify a wealthy person. It meant the one who possessed many cattle, especially the cows and bulls. Other domesticated animals were the ox, the horse, the dog, the goat and the sheep.

(c) Trade Transactions, Crafts and Transportation:
The people were engaged in trade, cloth and leather goods being the main items. The barter system practiced for trade transactions. The cow was the standard unit of value. Men and women were engaged in weaving cloth. The metal-workers or the smiths were skilled in making weapons, implements and ornaments. The metal ayas mentioned in the Rig Veda is generally taken to mean copper or bronze, although it has been understood as iron also. They used horses and bullocks for carrying goods from place to place. They also transported goods through the inland rivers

 

ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Later Vedic Age

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ICSE Solutions for Class 9 History and Civics – The Later Vedic Age

ICSE SolutionsSelina ICSE SolutionsML Aggarwal Solutions

EXERCISES

Question 1.
Mention any two of the religious texts which serve as sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age.
Answer:
The Brahmans and the Aryanyakas (forest texts).

Question 2.
Mention any two archaeological sources to reconstruct the later Vedic Age.
Answer:
Iron tools and pottery.

Question 3.
Name any two newer regions occupied by the Aryans during the later Vedic period.
Answer:
During the later Vedic period, the Aryans occupied the region along the course of the rivers Ganga and Yamuna—Bihar, vast regions to the east such as Kosala (east Uttar Pradesh).

Question 4.
Mention the important evidence to suggest that Southern India had also become familiar with Iron in the later Vedic Age.
Answer:
Megalithic Monuments such as dolmens and cromlechs have been found all over South India. The word ‘megalith’ means large stone (mega + lith). A dolmen or a cromlech is a megalithic tomb with a large -flat stone laid on upright ones. Iron tools, arrows and fragments of rice and other grains have been found, besides the skeletons of the persons buried in these graves. This is enough to show the transition from Copper and Bronze Age Culture to the Iron Age.

Question 5.
Mention any two of the Ashrams in the life of a man in Aryan society.
Answer:
The Brahmacharya Ashram and the Grihastha Ashram.

Question 6.
Mention the important subjects included in the courses of Gurukul education.
Answer:
Ethics, Military Science, Astronomy and Astrology were included in the course of study. Mathematics, Law and Grammar were also important subjects of study besides Vedic literature.

Question 7.
Name the sacrifice that was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.
Answer:
The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed by a king at the time of his coronation during the later Vedic age.

Question 8.
Name arty two newer crops produced by the later Vedic Aryans.
Answer:
Virhi (rice) and wheat.

Question 9.
Name the important deities of the later Vedic period.
Answer:
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Lord Rama and Lord Krishna became popular deities during- the Epic period. Durga, Kali and Parvati emerged as the important female deities.

Question 10.
Name the two Epics and their authors.
Answer:
The two Epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana was written by the sage Valmiki and the Mahabharata is believed to be the work of Ved Vyasa.

Question 11.
What is the message of the Bhagavad Gita?
Answer:
The Bhagavad Gita lays down stress on keep oneself doing hard work in the long run in respect of seeking any advantage out of it as it is the will of God to bestow his servant with the reward that he deserves. Also, it teaches; Let you not scare the Death as it is the physical body which dies but the Soul is immortal.

Question 12.
Mention briefly the rituals and sacrifices of the later Vedic Aryans?
Answer:
Sacrifice became the most important part of the religion – of the later Vedic Aryans. The ceremonies could be performed only by professional priests, many superstitious beliefs in spirits, spells and charms became part of their religion. Practice of Tapasya or penance occupied an important place in the religion. They believed in the principles of Karma (action) and Moksha (salvation).

Question 13.
Mention the reasons for the importance of the Brahmins (priestly class) in the later Vedic society.
Answer:
In the later Vedic period, the simple religious practices became complicated and ritualistic which were varied handled by the priests themselves as they had a vast knowledge of enchanting mantras in a meaningful manner to perform the holy rituals for a purpose, wish or some other reason. Hence, the priestly class was always given a prominent position in society in the later Vedic period.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Question 1.
What information do we gather from the later Vedic literature in respect of:
(a) Spread of Vedic Civilization to many New Regions.
(b) Role of Iron in later Vedic Economy.
Answer:
(a)
Aryas-expansion during the later Vedic age: As the population increased, the Aryans moved along the course of the river Ganga and Yamuna. The scene shifted from Punjab to the land of the Kurus which was the region round dem Delhi. Further, they occupied vast regions to the east, such as Kosala (east Uttar Pradesh), Kashi (Varanasi), Videha (north Bihar) and Magadha (south Bihar). The name ‘ Vangas’ occurs in one of the Aranyakas (forest texts), which refers to the people of Eastern Bengal. The Aitareya Brahmana mentioned the Andhra, who in modern times are the Telugu-speaking people of the southern India. Thus, the territories occupied by the later Vedic Aryans, comprised the whole of India to the north of the Narmada and some regions even to the south of that river.
(b)
In context of the use of Iron extensively during the later Vedic Age, the given headlines are described as under:The regions in which the use of Iron was fairly widespread during the later Vedic Age, they were the modem States of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, parts of Bengal, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Iron weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads and tools like— knives, axes and plough shares have been discovered from various painted Grey Ware sites. But in some parts of the country, the Red Ware (pottery) were more common than the Polished Grey Ware.

Question 2.
Describe the social changes evident in the later Vedic period with reference to:|
(a) Position of Women (b) Caste System
Answer:
With reference to the given heads the social changes evident in the later Vedic period are described as under:
(a) Position of Women: The honor or respect that the women of the Rig Vedic age had enjoyed had been lessened towards the later Vedic age. Although they continued to be associated with all religious rites, the rules of marriage underment a change. If monogamy was the ideal, polygamy was practiced, at least in higher sections of society. Widow-marriage, which was fairly common in the Rig Vedic age, was now regarded with disfavor. But the education which some women received, was of high order. The discourses of women philosophers are preserved in the

(b) Caste System: The Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed powers and privileges denied to the Vaisyas and the By this time, besides the four major Varnas, many other caste groups had come into being like — the merchants, the chariot-makers, the smiths, the carpenters, the tanners, the fishermen etc. Membership of a caste had become hereditary’ and there was also a fixation of occupation on the basis of one’s caste-grouping. The so-called untouchables were forced to live in separate settlements outside the village or the town boundaries.

Question 3.
In the later Vedic Age there was a marked change in the economic life of the Aryans. In this context describe :
(a) The growing importance of Agriculture
(b) Variety of Crafts
(c) Changes in the field of Trade and Commerce
Answer:
In context of the marked change in the economic life of the Aryans, the given headlines are described as follows:
(a) The growing importance of Agriculture:
Rearing of cattle and other domestic animals continued, but it was now less important than agriculture. In addition to Yava or barley, a new crop Vrihi or rice,had assumed greater significance. Fragments of both barley and rice have been found at Hastinapur and other place. The later Vedic Aryans produced many other crops such as wheat millet and sugarcane.

(b) Variety of Crafts:
Different kinds of crafts had been introduced. The main reason behind it, could be the use of iron in large quantities. Iron weapons and tools have been recovered from various Painted Grey Ware or Black and Red Ware Sites. Crafts, such as pottery, leather ­working, carpentry, making of jewelry and the manufacture of glass also flourished. Crafts specialization had now become more common that, in early Vedic period. Thus, chariot-making developed as an occupation different from that of carpentry.

(c) Change in the field of Trade and Commerce:
Important changes can be noticed in the field of trade and commerce. Commerce was made easier by the use of such units of value as nishka and satmana. The reference to ships, indicates a flourishing in land maritime trade. A class of hereditary merchants (Vanija) existed now. Many of the professions were organised into guilds, which in later ages, controlled prices and ensured the quantity of the goods.

Question 4.
Explain the religious beliefs and forms of worship during the later Vedic Age with reference to : Spiritual Philosophy of the Upanishads
Answer:
Spiritual Philosophy of the Upanishads:
Towards the end of the later Vedic phase, a new trend is visible. The Upanishads do not deal with rituals or sacrifices. They deal with the higher knowledge and explain the relationship between Jeeva (individual soul) and Brahma (Supreme Soul or God). A major concept of the Upanishads is “the essential unity of all religions, of all spiritual paths.” The Truth is One, the wise call it by many names.