Biology

Frank ICSE Class 10 Biology Solutions – Structure of Chromosomes

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Frank ICSE Class 10 Biology Solutions – Structure of Chromosomes

PAGE NO-20:
Solution 1:
Chromatin is an extremely thin, long nuclear fibre occurring in the nucleus before cell division.

Solution 2:
In interphase, the chromatin appears as a network of long, extremely thin fibres.

Solution 3:
During prophase of mitosis, the chromatin fibres shorten and become thick to form chromosomes.
During metaphase, the chromosomes appear more distinct and clear and each consists of two parallel strands called chromatids joined by a centromere.

Solution 4:
Chromosomes are the thread like structures or chromatin material present inside the nucleus.
Chromosomes are so called because they take up certain basic dye and stain very rapidly. The word chromosome comes from two words “chromos” meaning colour and “soma” meaning body.

Solution 5:

  1. Strasburger – He observed thread like structures during cell division.
  2. Balbiani – Described rod like structures in nucleus before cell division.
  3. Waldeyer – Coined the term ‘chromosomes’.
  4. Sutton and Boveri – They described chromosomes as physical structures and transmitters of hereditary traits.

Solution 6:
Chromosomes are the thread like structures present in the nucleus of the cell. They are covered with a sheath made up of proteins and filled with granular matter called matrix. Inside the matrix, there are two threads called chromonemata.
The chromosome consists of two symmetrical strands called chromatids. Each chromosome consists of a distinct constriction called centromere which gets attached to the spindle network.
Frank ICSE Class 10 Biology Solutions - Structure of Chromosomes 1

Solution 7:

  1. Sheath – It is a proteinaeous covering present around the chromosomes.
  2. Matrix – It is a granular matter present inside the sheath.
  3. Chromonemata – They are the subunits of chromatids.
  4. Centromere – A constriction in the chromosome is called centromere.
  5. Secondary Constriction – A constriction other than primary constriction is called a secondary constriction.
  6. Telomere – The ends of the chromosomes is termed as telomere.

Solution 8:
Chromosomes are best observed at metaphase

Solution 9:
The chromosomes other than sex chromosomes present in the human body are called autosomes.
22 pairs of autosomes are present in man.

Solution 10:
The chromosomes which determine the sex of an individual are called sex chromosomes.

Solution 11:
Sex chromosomes are significant as they determine the sex of an individual.

Solution 12:
In man, there is a pair of sex chromosomes. In males, it is X and Y while in female, the sex chromosomes are X and X which are identical to each other.

Solution 13:
Chromosomes are the main source of chemical information which determines that the cell should become like its parent cell.

During the developmental stage they also determine that the cells of the organism will give the animal or the plant, the characteristic features of its species.

Solution 14:
DNA and RNA are the two nucleic acids.
Frederick Miescher discovered DNA

Solution 15:
Nucleic acids are made up of three types of molecules:

  1. a pentose sugar,
  2. nitrogenous bases
  3. a phosphate

Solution 16:
The chemical composition of chromosome consists of:

  1. Approximately 40% of DNA
  2. 50% of Histone proteins
  3. 8.5% Non histone proteins
  4. Metallic ions like magnesium and calcium in traces.

Solution 17:
Two nitrogenous bases present in DNA are:

  1. Purines – Adenine and Guanine.
  2. Pyrimidines – Cytosine and Thymine.

Solution 18:
Frank ICSE Class 10 Biology Solutions - Structure of Chromosomes 2

Solution 19:
Features of DNA:

  1. DNA consists of two strands which are spirally arranged around an axis. This is called a double helical arrangement.
  2. Each DNA strand is made up of nitrogenous bases, pentose sugar and phosphate.
  3. Sugars are pentose type; bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine.
  4. Both strands are connected with hydrogen bonds. There are two bonds between adenine and thymine and three bonds between guanine and cytosine.
  5. In the DNA, bases are inside and sugars are outside and two sugars are connected with phosphoric acid.
  6. Each DNA strand replicates and from each replicated DNA a new DNA is formed. This is called replication of DNA.

Solution 20:
Watson and Crick described the detailed structure of DNA.

Solution 21:
Importance of DNA:

  1. DNA is most important because it is the hereditary material.
  2. It acts as the director of protein synthesis.
  3. Some DNA of chromosomes forms nucleolus.
  4. DNA in presence of enzymes forms mRNA which acts as messenger.

Solution 22:
The rungs of “DNA ladder” are made up of two types of nitrogenous bases:

  1. Purines: Adenine and Guanine
  2. Pyrimidines: Cytosine and Thymine.

Solution 23:
Repeating components of each DNA strand length wise are pentose sugar and phosphate group

Solution 24:

  1. Interphase
  2. histone proteins
  3. RNA, DNA
  4. Protein
  5. Nitrogen

PAGE NO 21
Solution 25:

  1. False
  2. False
  3. True
  4. True

Solution 26:

  1. This diagram represents the structure of chromosome.
  2. ‘d’ is centromere which gets attached to the spindle fibres.
  3. ‘b’ is heterochromatin which is darkly stained region when stained with acetocarmine and ‘c’ is euchromatin which when stained with acetocarmine or felugen gets lightly stained.
  4. Waldeyer
  5. Matrix
  6. No, secondary constriction or ‘e’ is not present in all chromosomes.

Solution 27:

  1. (d) chromatin
  2. (c) Waldeyer
  3. (a) centromere
  4. (c) secondary constriction
  5. (a) interphase
  6. (d) prophase
  7. (a) DNA and histones
  8. (a) 46
  9. (a) I shaped
  10. (b) metacentric
  11. (c) XY
  12. (b) sex chromosomes
  13. (a) Watson and Crick
  14. (a) nitrogen base
  15. (c) Uracil
  16. (b) thymine
  17. (a) DNA

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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Pollination and Fertilization

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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Pollination and Fertilization

PAGE NO: 72

Solution 1:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same or another flower.
The male gametes are produced inside pollen grains located in the anthers of androecium whereas the female gametes are produced in the ovules located in the ovary of gynoecium. For forming zygote, the male gametes need to be transferred to the gynoecium for fusing with the female gametes. This is achieved through pollination. Pollination occurs through insects, wind or other agents.
There are two types of pollination – Self pollination and cross pollination.

Solution 2:
The two modes of pollination are:

(i) Self-pollination – It is the transfer of pollens produced within the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower of the same plant. In such flowers, pollination is ensured since the flowers bear similar genetic characters. Self pollination can occur in bisexual or monoecious flowers. Examples of plants showing self pollination are Mirabilis, Arachis etc.
(ii) Cross pollination – It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower of one plant to the stigma of a flower of another plant. Cross pollination occurs in unisexual or dioecious flowers such as papaya, maize, jasmine, rose etc.

Solution 3:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Pollination and Fertilization 1

Solution 4:
Adaptations required by self pollinated plants are:

  • Bisexuality – Self pollination occurs only in bisexual flowers.
  • Homogamy – Both anther and stigma need to mature at the same time.
  • Cleistogamy – Flowers which are bisexual and never open are called cleistogamous flowers. They are small, colourless, odourless and without nectar. The pollen grains fall on the stigma inside the closed flower. Example – Arachis

Adaptations required by cross pollinated plants are:

  • Unisexuality – The stamens and carpels are found in different flowers. The male and female flowers may be borne on the same or different plants.
  •  Dichogamy – In bisexual flowers, stamens and carpels mature at different times.

It is of two kinds:

  1.  Protandry wherein stamens mature before carpels. E.g – jasmine
  2. Protogyny wherein carpels mature before stamens. E.g. – Rose
  •  Heterostyly – Here the style is either longer or shorter, thereby preventing self pollination.
  •  Herkogamy – Stigma and stamen mature at the same time, but some type of barrier prevents self pollination. E.g. – In caryophyllaceous flower, the stigma projects beyond the stamens so that pollens cannot fall on it.
  • Self-sterility – Pollen of one flower cannot fertilize the female gametes of the same flower.

Solution 5:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Pollination and Fertilization 2
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Pollination and Fertilization 3

Solution 6:
Fertilisation is defined as the fusion of the male and female gametes.

Solution 7:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Pollination and Fertilization 4

Solution 8:
In angiosperms, during fertilization, one male gamete fuses with the egg cell and forms diploid zygote in a process called syngamy. The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to form a triploid nucleus called primary endosperm nucleus. This process is called triple fusion. Since fertilization takes place twice here, so this process is called double fertilization.
Significance – Due to double fertilization, triploid nucleus develops into endosperm which serves as nutrition for embryo.

Solution 9:
Fruit is a ripened ovary containing one or more seeds.

Solution 10:
After fertilization, ovary undergoes two important changes:

  • The ovules develop into seeds
  • The ovary walls thicken and ripen into pericarp or fruit wall.

Solution 11:
Yes, fruits are important for the plant since the seeds mature inside it. Fruits are colourful and tasty and hence eaten by animals. This helps in far and wide dispersal of the seeds.

Solution 12:
(i) (c) entomophily
(ii) (a) bats
(iii) (a) ornithophily
(iv) (a) syngamy
(v) (c) pomology
(vi) (b) true fruits
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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Interaction Between Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem

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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Interaction Between Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem

PAGE NO: 99

Solution 1:
Producers

Solution 2:
Consumers

Solution 3:
The climatic factors affecting ecosystem are sunlight, temperature, humidity, rainfall and wind.

Solution 4:
Low and high temperatures restrict the growth of plants and existence of animal species. Changes in temperature patterns will impact plant life which in turn will influence the animal life, since animals depend directly or indirectly on it for food. During extreme cold and hot conditions, animals either migrate to favourable places, some may hibernate or some may aestivate.

Solution 5:
Consumers which eat only plants are called consumers of the first order. Consumers that eat herbivores like deer, goats, grasshoppers, etc. are called consumers of the second order.

Solution 6:
Deserts have scanty water, either because there is little rainfall, or because the water evaporates very fast in deserts. Desert species are adapted to less amounts of water and they are capable of surviving for long periods of time in the scarcity of water. The growth of plants and animals and their vital functions are dependent on water intake. Hence water is a vital limiting factor in deserts due to the scant availability of this important resource.

Solution 7:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Interaction Between Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem 1

Solution 8:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Interaction Between Biotic and Abiotic Factors in an Ecosystem 2

Solution 9:
Vital atmospheric gases are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Oxygen availability seldom becomes a limiting factor for land animals unless they live in soil or invade high altitudes. Plants release oxygen into the air which is used by animals for respiration. During respiration, animals release carbon dioxide which is required by plants for photosynthesis. Nitrogen is an essential gas which is vital for the growth and sustenance of organisms.

Solution 10:
In a natural ecosystem, green plants capture solar energy and convert it into chemical forms. The energy is then passed onto herbivores when they feed on green plants. From herbivores, the energy moves into carnivores that eat them. Some animals like lion and vultures are not eaten by other organisms. All the organisms ultimately pass on energy to the decomposers. Energy thus flows continuously through the ecosystem from plant to animals and from prey to predator.

Solution 11:
Energy passes through the ecosystem in a one-way path. Energy goes through each trophic level, one at a time. As it goes from one level to another, it is lost due to metabolism and in the form of heat. For example – The energy ingested by producers is used by the producers for carrying out various life activities and some amount of energy is lost as heat, so that the entire energy does not pass completely to the consumers. The energy lost as heat cannot be used anymore.

Solution 12:
The transfer of energy from autotrophs through a series of organisms that consume and are consumed is known as a food chain.

Solution 13:
The types of food chain are:

  1. Grazing food chain
  2. Detritus food chain
  3. Auxiliary food chain
    (Write any two)

Solution 14:
Individual food chains interconnected in a complex way is called food web.

Solution 15:
An energy pyramid is a graphical representation of the flow of energy from the producers through the various consumers. It shows the amount of energy available and the loss of useful energy at each step of the food chain in an ecosystem.

Solution 16:
As the energy gets transferred from lower trophic level to the higher one, there is a loss of large amount of energy due to metabolism and as heat. As a result very little energy (i.e. 10%) gets transferred to the next level. So the trophic level at the base has maximum energy and that at the top has the least amount of energy. Hence energy pyramid is broader at the base and narrower at the top.

Solution 17:
(i)(a) unidirectional
(ii)(d) producers and consumers
(iii)(d) all the above
(iv)(a) photosynthesis
(v)(b) herbivores
(vi)(b) bacteria, fungi, etc.
(vii)(b) Communities and their physical environment
(viii)(d) solar energy
(ix)(d) biotic and abiotic
(x)(d) high temperature and high rain
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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Diversity of Life and Classification

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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Diversity of Life and Classification

PAGE NO:117

Solution 1:
Diversity refers to the variety of living organisms found within a given ecosystem, biome, or on an entire planet.

Solution 2:
The method of arranging organisms into series of groups on the basis of similarities and differences is called classification.
Classification is important in the following ways:

  1.  It makes the study of a wide variety of organisms easy.
  2.  It gives us an overall picture of all the life-forms.
  3. It helps us to understand the interrelationships among different groups of organisms.
  4. It forms a base for the development of other biological sciences.

Solution 3:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Diversity of Life and Classification 1

Solution 4:
Taxonomy is the study of the theory, practice and rules of classification of living and extinct organisms.

Solution 5:
The five kingdom system of classification was proposed by R. H. Whittaker in 1969. This classification is based on the following four facts:

  • Complexity of cell structure
  •  Methods of nutrition (autotrophic or heterotrophic)
  • Complexity of body organization.
  •  Phylogenetic relationships.

The five kingdoms in this system are:

  1. Monera – It includes all the prokaryotes like bacteria and cyanobacteria. They are important decomposers.
  2.  Protista – It includes the aquatic, eukaryotic, acellular organisms like protozoans.
  3. Fungi – This kingdom includes moulds, mushrooms and yeasts.
  4. Plantae – It includes all the coloured, multicellular, eukaryotes with cell walls.
  5.  Animalia – These are multicellular eukaryotes lacking cell wall and showing heterotrophic nutrition.

Solution 6:
Important characters of five kingdom are:
 Characters of kingdom Monera are:

  1. It contains acellular organisms, ranging in size between 0.15  to 2.0 .
  2.  They are prokaryotes, lacking a well-defined nucleus .
  3. They usually lack chlorophyll and hence are parasites or saprophytes.
  4. Reproduction occurs by binary fission or budding in bacteria.
    Example – Actinomycetes, bacteria, cyanobacteria.

Characters of kingdom Protista are:

  1.  They are aquatic, unicellular organisms.
  2. They have eukaryotic cells with well-defined nucleus and organelles.
  3. They show autotrophic or heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
  4. Some protists are parasites and few are decomposers too.
    Example – Euglena, Ameoba, Paramoecium.

 Characters of kingdom Fungi:

  1.  They may be unicellular or multicellular.
  2. They have heterotrophic nutrition and mostly they are saprophytes.
  3. Their body is made up of mycelium, a filament of which is called hypha.
  4.  Their cell wall is made up of chitin.
    Example – Aspergillus, Agaricus, Penicillium.

 Characters of kingdom Plantae:

  1. They are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms.
  2.  The cell membrane is surrounded by a thick cell wall of cellulose.
  3. Except a few aquatic life forms, plants are non-motile.
  4.  They have different modes of nutrition: autotrophic, parasitic even
    insectivorous.
    Example – Mango, Cycas, Fern, Moss.

 Characters of kingdom Animalia:

  1.  They are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms without cell wall.
  2. They show heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
  3. They can retract or expand with the help of muscles.
  4.  They are consumers in-between producers and decomposers.
    Example – Fish, Frog, Earthworm, Man.

Solution 7:
The kingdom Plantae has been divided into following groups:
Thallophyta 

  •  They are consists of red, green and brown algae.
  •  Algae are of universal occurrence.
  •  Their body ranges from unicellular to multicellular colonies, filaments or sheets of cells.
  • Vascular tissues are absent.
  •  Nutrition is generally autotrophic (through photosynthesis).
  • Reproduction is vegetative or sexual.

 Bryophyta

  •  It consists of liverworts and mosses.
  • They are terrestrial, found in damp, shady places.
  •  Their life cycle has a long gametophytic phase and a short sporophytic phase.
  • Liverworts have prostrate thalloid gametophytic body, but mosses have erect body.
  • True roots are absent, but rhizoids presents.
  •  Vascular tissues are absent.
  •  Nutrition is generally autotrophic (through photosynthesis).
  •  Reproduction is vegetative or sexual.

 Pteridophyta 

  • They include ferns, horse-tails and club mosses.
  • They occur mainly in cool, shady and moist places.
  • They are mostly terrestrial.
  • They are perennial herbs with stem in the form of rhizome.
  •  Fibrous roots present.
  • Their life cycle has a gametophytic phase and a short sporophytic phase.
  •  Vascular tissues are present.
  •  Nutrition is generally autotrophic (through photosynthesis).
  •  Reproduction is vegetative or sexual.

 Spermatophyta 

  •  They are the most successful terrestrial plants having seeds.
  •  They produce seeds (fertilized ovules).
  • They are divided into two groups –
  1.  Gymnosperms -They bear naked seeds and lack flowers.
    Examples: Pine, Cycas
  2. Angiosperms – They produce seeds enclosed in ovary and flowers
    are present.
    Examples: Rose, Grass

Solution 8:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Diversity of Life and Classification 2
Solution 9:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Diversity of Life and Classification 3

Solution 10:
The various classes of Chordata are:

  1. Pisces – Labeo (Rohu), Scoliodon (Dog fish)
  2. Amphibia – Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog )
  3.  Reptilia – Kanchuga (Tortoise), Naja naja ( Cobra)
  4.  Aves – Columba (Pigeon), Pavo (Peacock)
  5. Mammalia – Elephas ( Elephant), Funambulas (Squirrel)

Solution 11:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Diversity of Life and Classification 4

Solution 12:
Characters of mammals are:

  1. The females of this class are provided with mammary glands which produces milk to feed the young one.
  2. Body usually covered with hair, spines, scales, nail, hoof or horn.
  3.  External ear or pinna is well-developed.
  4. They are warm-blooded.

PAGE NO:118

Solution 13:
(a) Starfish belongs to phylum Echinodermata.
Two characters of starfish are:

  1. Spines found on the body which is covered by calcareous plates.
  2.  Body is star shaped with five radiating areas called ambulacra with inter-ambulacra in between.

(b) Whale belongs to phylum Chordata.
Two characters of whale are:

  1. They are warm blooded marine animals.
  2. Heart is completely four-chambered.

(c) Jelly fish belongs to phylum Coelenterata.
Two characters of jelly fish are:

  1.  Body diploblastic having outer epidermis and inner gastrodermis with gelatinous mesoglea.
  2. Tentacles are present around the mouth.

(d) Cockroach belongs to phylum Arthropoda.
Two characters of cockroach are:

  1.  They have jointed legs.
  2. Their exoskeleton is made up of chitinous cuticle which is shed from time to time.

Solution 14:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Diversity of Life and Classification 5

Solution 15:
Bryophyta – Liverwort and Moss.
Pteridophyta – Fern and Horsetail.

Solution 16:
Antedon (Sea lily) and Asterias (Star fish ).

Solution 17:
Whale

Solution 18:
Cockroach, crab

Solution 19:
Frog

Solution 20:
Echidna

Solution 21:
Earthworm – Pheretima posthuma and
Roundworm – Ascaris

Solution 22:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Diversity of Life and Classification 6

Solution 23:
(a) Arthropoda
(b) Porifera
(c) Mollusca

Solution 24:
(a) Protozoa
(b) Mollusca
(c) Annelida

Solution 25:
(a) Asterias (Star fish ), Echinus (Sea-urchin)
(b) Scoliodon (Dog fish), Labeo (Rohu)
(c) Fasciola ( Liver fluke), Taenia solium (Tapeworm)
(d) Ascaris ( Roundworm), Wuchereria (Filarial worm )
(e) Pheretima (Earthworm), Hirudinaria ( Leech )
(f) Palemon (Prawn), Periplaneta (Cockroach)

Solution 26:
(a) Annelida
(b) Coelenterata
(c) Arthropoda
(d) Echinodermata

Solution 27:
(a) Flame cells
(b) Nemathelminthes
(c) Annelida
(d) Porifera
(e) Chordata

Solution 28:

  1. (a) three pairs of legs are present.
  2. (a) coelentrata
  3. (c) octopus
  4. (c) paramoecium
  5. (c) hippocampus
  6. (a) Scorpion
  7. (b) for five kingdom classification
  8.  (a) prokaryotic and multicellular eukaryotic cell
  9.  (d) plant
  10. (d) C. Linnaeus
  11. (c) Carolus Linnaeus

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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance

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Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology – Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance

PAGE NO:127

Solution 1:

  1.  Bacteria are a large group of unicellular, prokaryotic microorganisms.
  2.  The bacteria which do not get stained with crystal violet and iodine solution are called gram negative bacteria while those bacteria which get stained with crystal violet and iodine solution are called gram positive bacteria.

Solution 2:

  1. Bacteria shows the presence of cell wall, hence they are included under plants.
  2.  Spore formation helps bacteria to survive during adverse environmental conditions. Hence it is a survival technique.
  3.  Bacteria as friends :
    Bacteria are useful to us in many ways like producing antibiotics, forming curd and cheese, tanning leather, producing various industrial products, nitrogen fixation, digesting cellulose etc.
    Bacteria as foes:
    They are harmful in many ways like causing diseases, bio-weapons , food spoilage etc.
  4. Yeast is used in breweries since the fermentation activity of yeast produces different types of beverages like wine, beer, alcohol toddy etc. In bakeries, when yeast is added to the flour its fermentation results in the production of carbon dioxide which produces soft bread and other bakery products.

Solution 3:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 1

Solution 4:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 2
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 3

Solution 5:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 4

PAGE NO:128

Solution 6:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 5

Solution 7:
(a) Penicillium notatum
(b) Aspergillus fumigatus
(c) Candida albicans
(d) Aspergillus

Solution 8:
(a) chitin
(b) saprophytic
(c) obligate aerobes
(d) Agaricus campestris

Solution 9:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 5

Solution 10:
Fungi are cooked like vegetables or used in pulao or prepared as soups. Some common edible fungi are Agaricus, Ramaria, Clavaria, Morchella.
Also yeast is used in preparing idli and dosa from a mixture of powdered rice and dal.

Solution 11:
Yes. Many types of antibiotics are obtained from fungi which are used in medical sciences. Today about 25 types of antibiotics are commercially produced from moulds.
For example: Penicillin is obtained from the fungus Penicillium notatum.
Griseofulvin is extracted from the fungus Penicillium griseofulvum.

Solution 12:
Frank ICSE Solutions for Class 9 Biology - Bacteria and Fungi Their Importance 7

Solution 13:

  1. (b) Leeuwenhoek
  2. (a) bacteria
  3. (b) Bacillus
  4. (a) Tuberculosis
  5. (d) Rhizobium
  6. (b) Lactobacillus
  7. (d) Agaricus
  8.  (a) ethyl alcohol

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